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Examining Side Effects and Emotional Blunting of Antidepressants
Rebecca Green, BS
Rider University, Lawrenceville, NJ
Introduction
● MAOIs and Tricyclics are old forms of
antidepressants that are known to have large side
effects (O'Mullan et al., 2014).
● Newer antidepressants such as SSRIs have less
side effects, but are known to induce emotional
blunting (O'Mullan et al., 2014).
● Emotional blunting: A reduction in emotional
sensitivity along with a sense that emotions are
numbed (Sansone & Sansone, 2010).
Hypotheses
● Incidence of each side-effect will be
significantly > for those currently taking an
antidepressant than those not.
● Side effects will decrease with time (as in
Crawford et al., 2014), and so be significantly <
for those taking antidepressants for longer
durations.
● Degree of emotional blunting will be
significantly > for those currently taking an
antidepressant.
● Emotional blunting will decrease over time and
be < in those taking antidepressants for longer
durations.
Methods
Participants
● 256 individuals (221 females, 32 males, 2
nonbinary, 1 agender)
● Average length of antidepressant use: 45.67
months
Procedure
● 45-questions survey (Google Forms);
distributed through social media, personal
contacts, and e-mail.
● 3 categories: demographics, side effects, and
emotional blunting*
*Emotional blunting questions were adapted
from The Oxford Questionnaire on the
Emotional Side-effects of Antidepressants
(OQuESA) (Price et al., 2012).
Results
● Found significant differences in the rates of
side-effects among the three groups and in emotional
blunting scores among the three groups.
● No significant difference between length taking
antidepressants and incidence of side effects.
● Total emotional blunting was negatively correlated
with time taking the medication.
Discussion
● Findings suggest that side-effects and
emotional blunting caused by antidepressants
may outweigh benefits.
● It is necessary for research to be done to find
new kinds of antidepressants.
● Future research should examine side effects
of SSRIs versus aminoketones.
● Population was 86% female, so the study
should be repeated with a representative
sample of males.
● This study enhanced understanding of the
relationship between antidepressants, side
effects, and emotional blunting.
References
● Crawford, A.A., Lewis, S., Nutt, D., Peters, T. J., Cowen, P., O’Donovan, M. C., . . . Lewis,
G. (2014). Adverse effects from antidepressant treatment: Randomized controlled trial of
601 depressed individuals. Psychopharmacology, 231, 2921-2931.
doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3467-8
● O’Mullan, C., Doherty, M., Coates, R., & Tilley, P. M. (2014). Women’s experiences of
coping with the sexual side effects of antidepressant medication. Psychology & Health, 29,
1388-1406. doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.940951
● Price, J., Cole, V., Doll, H., & Goodwin, G. M. (2012). The Oxford questionnaire on
the emotional side-effects of ANTIDEPRESSANTS (OQUESA): DEVELOPMENT,
validity, reliability and sensitivity to change. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(1), 66-74.
doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.030
● Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2010). SSRI-Induced Indifference. Psychiatry (Edgmont
(Pa. :Township)), 7(10), 14–18.
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Examining Side Effects and Emotional Blunting of Antidepressants
Rebecca Green
Rider University
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Abstract
This study examined the differences between side-effects and emotional blunting in those
currently taking an antidepressant versus those not taking one. It was predicted that the incidence
of each side-effect would be significantly greater for those currently taking an antidepressant,
and that the side-effects would decrease with time taking the medication. It was also expected
that the degree of emotional blunting would be significantly greater for those currently taking an
antidepressant than for the other two groups, and that emotional blunting would decrease over
time. The data for this study was from a 45 question survey that was successfully completed by
256 participants. The survey questions asked about demographic information, side-effects
experienced, and the degree of emotional blunting experienced by the participants. Results
revealed a significant difference in the rates of side-effects among the three groups, as well as a
significant difference in emotional blunting scores among the three groups. These results suggest
that those with experience taking an antidepressant either currently or previously experience
significantly worse side-effects and emotional blunting than those who have never taken one.
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Introduction
In the hectic lifestyle characteristic of the modern world, it is all too common to
experience extended periods of dysphoria and feelings of meaninglessness, helplessness, and
hopelessness, all defining features of mood disorders (O'Mullan, Doherty, Coates, & Tilley,
2014). Despite 70 years of clinical studies yielding only relatively thin threads of data pointing to
biological underpinnings of depression, there is little doubt that combining psychotherapy with
antidepressants is the most effective intervention (Read, Grigoriu, Gee, & Butler, 2020;
Santarsieri & Schwartz, 2015). This integration allows the client to develop skills to resolve
current issues and successfully contend with future issues while the medications reduce the
symptoms of depression (Read et al., 2020). The drug employed is typically tailored to the
specific symptoms a patient presents and designed to either address potential imbalances in one
or more neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine). They could also alter the
workings of specific enzymes (e.g., monoamine oxidase inhibitors, St. John's Wort).
The first types of antidepressants developed were based upon either the inhibition of
specific enzymes (e.g., monoamine oxidase inhibitors or MAOIs) or a more general approach
that simultaneously altered serotonin and norepinephrine levels (e.g., the tricyclics). The MAOIs,
which work by inhibiting the enzyme monoamine oxidase's activity, prevent monoamine
neurotransmitters' breakdown (Santarsieri & Schwartz, 2015). The tricyclics' three-ring structure
inhibits the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, thus elevating their respective levels. The
MAOIs and tricyclics were effective but presented significant safety concerns and challenges,
and while the elevations of serotonin and norepinephrine levels were considered to be desirable
and beneficial, pharmaceutical companies began to develop agents capable of yielding similar
effects by different, safer, and more effective mechanisms (Anderson, Pace, Libby, West, &
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Valuck, 2012; Bet, Hugtenburg, Penninx, & Hoogendijk, 2013; O'Mullan et al., 2014; Read et
al., 2020).
The first of the newer antidepressants' primary mode of action selectively blocked
serotonin's reuptake (e.g., the SSRIs), and these remain the most widely prescribed class of
antidepressants (Kikuchi, Suzuki, Uchida, Watanabe, & Mimura, 2013; Santarsieri & Schwartz,
2015). The selectivity of the SSRIs helps to avoid the anticholinergic and cardiac side-effects
that are seen with tricyclics (Santarsieri & Schwartz, 2015). Then a new class of drug was
produced that extended the SSRI mechanisms to inhibit the reuptake of both serotonin and
norepinephrine (e.g., the SNRIs); these drugs were also associated with less severe side-effects
than older medications. Despite the specificity of the SSRI and SNRI mechanisms, some
side-effects have been reported (Kikuchi et al., 2013; O'Mullan et al., 2014) and prompted
research into more natural treatments such as the medicinal plant. One of these treatments is St.
John's Wort, which has an active ingredient of hypericin, one of the main functional parts of
hypericum. The initial biochemical studies report St John's Wort weakly inhibits both
monoamine oxidase (MAO) and the reuptake mechanisms for serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine (Bet et al., 2013; Crawford, Lewis, Nutt, Peters, Cowen, O'Donovan, . . . Lewis,
2014; Mischoulon, 2009).
The incidence of side-effects is typically higher for patients with more severe levels of
depression, those with three or more concurrent psychiatric diagnoses, and those maintained on
higher doses of antidepressants. The number of side-effects was lower for older patients. Also
side-effects are often more intense in the beginning of antidepressant use which can lead to early
termination of treatment (Anderson, 2012; Crawford et al., 2014; O'Mullan et al., 2014), with
tricyclics associated with the most side-effects, especially severe dry mouth and constipation
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(Bet et al., 2013). Outside of clinical drug testing sites, the lack of standardized terminology
complicates the determination of specific side-effects. A recent study reported that of 342
antidepressant users, only 17.3% reported exclusively positive responses (e.g., daily coping,
life-changing and life-saving). In contrast, 42.7% reported purely negative reactions (e.g.,
physical adverse effects, emotional and cognitive blunting, and withdrawal effects (Read et al.,
2020).
A commonly prescribed class of antidepressant, SSRI, has also been linked to a general
syndrome of indifference. Indifference can be looked at from a behavioral and an emotional
perspective. When indifference is looked at from an emotional perspective, it is called emotional
blunting. Emotional blunting due to antidepressant use presents itself as a reduction in emotional
sensitivity along with a sense that emotions are numbed. Emotional blunting lowers the intensity
of all emotions both positive and negative, which can lead to a diminished emotionality in both
personal and professional relationships (Sansone & Sansone, 2010). There is not currently
adequate research on the phenomenon of emotional blunting among those taking antidepressants.
For the current study, the incidence of selected side-effects (e.g., increased appetite and
weight gain, loss of sexual desire and other sexual problems, fatigue and drowsiness, insomnia,
dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, dizziness, agitation, irritability, and anxiety) were
examined in a sample of adults over the age of 18, some of whom had never taken an
antidepressant, some of whom had currently taken an antidepressant but were no longer doing so,
and some of whom were currently taking an antidepressant. It was predicted that the incidence of
each side-effect would be significantly greater for those currently taking an antidepressant. It was
also predicted that side effects would decrease with time (as in Crawford et al., 2014), and so
�5
therefore would be significantly lower for those taking antidepressants for longer than for shorter
durations.
Further predictions were made regarding emotional blunting. It was expected that the
degree of emotional blunting would be significantly greater for those currently taking than for
those not currently taking an antidepressant. It was unclear how those who had previously taken
antidepressants but were no longer doing so would be affected. The degree of emotional blunting
was also compared to duration of taking the medication. It was also predicted that emotional
blunting, like side effects, would decrease over time and therefore be lower in those taking
antidepressants for longer than for shorter durations.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 259 participants. However, 3 participants were excluded since
they did not answer a sufficient number of the survey questions, and so the final sample included
256 individuals. There were 221 females, 32 males, 2 individuals who identified as nonbinary,
and 1 agender particpant. The age of the participants ranged from 11-82 years old, with a mean
age of 35.26.
The survey asked participants about their current employment/ student status and they
were instructed to check all that applied to them. Among the participants, 154 were full time
students, 14 were part time students, 108 worked part time jobs, 53 were employed full time, and
15 were currently unemployed. In terms of relationship status 110 were single, 87 were in a
committed relationship, 37 were married, 12 were cohabiting, 6 were divorced, and 4 were
widowed.
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When asked if they had ever been diagnosed with depression, 99 participants said yes and
157 said no. The average age of diagnosis was 19.4 years of age. There were 64 participants who
indicated that they were currently taking an antidepressant, 28 who said that they had previously
taken an antidepressant but were not currently doing so, and 164 who had never taken an
antidepressant. Among those who were currently taking an antidepressant, the average length of
use was 45.67 months, or just under 4 years. Out of the 64 participants currently taking an
antidepressant, 55 were taking an SSRI and 9 were taking a different category of drug (e.g.,
SNRI, NDRI, or aminoketone).
Procedure
A 45-question survey was created in Google Forms and advertised through social media,
word of mouth, and academic classes at Rider University. Through wide distribution of the
survey, the goal was to obtain a sample of people of multiple ages, ethnicities, and
socioeconomic backgrounds.
The survey used for this study consisted of questions in three different categories. For the
full list of questions, see the Appendix. The survey began with demographic questions for
example, “With which gender identity do you most identify?” The demographic section also
inquired about the individuals’ history of depression and antidepressant use (e.g., “Have you ever
been diagnosed with depression?”). The next section asked questions about the frequency with
which participants felt the known side-effects of antidepressants. Before these questions were
answered the participants were instructed, “For each item #11 through 23, please rate on a scale
from 1 to 5 how frequently you have experienced it in the last 6 months, with 1 being very
infrequently and 5 being very frequently.” Examples of side-effects included in this section were
increased appetite, weight gain, and loss of sexual desire. The final set of questions were about
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emotional blunting. The directions for this section stated, “For the statements in items #24
through 45, please rank your agreement on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being strongly disagree and 5
being strongly agree.” The emotional blunting questions used in the survey were adapted from
The Oxford Questionnaire on the Emotional Side-effects of Antidepressants (OQuESA) as
described by Price and colleagues (2012). Examples of questions used to measure emotional
blunting included, “Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems at home,”
and, “I feel spaced out and distant from the world around me.”
Results
In order to measure the side effects experienced, a total score was calculated for each
participant by adding the scores (1-5) for each of the 13 side effects together. The maximum
possible score would be 65, which would indicate that the individual experienced each side effect
very frequently. A One-Way ANOVA was then conducted to compare the total side effects score
among those currently taking an antidepressant, those who had previously taken an
antidepressant, and those who had never taken an antidepressant. The results revealed a
significant difference among the three groups, F(2, 254) = 10.14, p = 0.000058. Post-hoc
analyses indicated that those who are currently taking an antidepressant experienced side effects
at a significantly higher rate (M = 36.11) than those who had never taken an antidepressant (M =
30.89), p = 0.0159. Additionally, those who had previously taken an antidepressant also had
higher levels of side effects (M = 37.29) than those who had never taken one, p = 0.0022.
In order to measure emotional blunting, a total score for each participant was calculated
by adding the scores (1-5) for each of the 22 emotional blunting questions together. The
maximum possible score would be 110, which would indicate that the individual agreed with
each emotional blunting statement very strongly. A One-Way ANOVA was then conducted to
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compare the total emotional blunting score among those currently taking an antidepressant, those
who had previously taken an antidepressant, and those who had never taken an antidepressant.
The results revealed a significant difference among the three groups, F(2, 254) = 11.34, p =
0.000019. Post-hoc analyses indicated that those who are currently taking an antidepressant
experienced emotional blunting significantly more (M = 53.67) than those who had never taken
an antidepressant (M = 43.44), p = 0.0055. Additionally, those who had previously taken an
antidepressant also had experienced emotional blunting more (M = 54.07) than those who had
never taken one, p = 0.0037.
Table 1
Mean ratings of side effects frequency (out of 5) based on antidepressant usage
Side effects
Currently Past
Never
Increased appetite
2.81
2.89
2.73
Weight gain
2.89
3.04
2.70
Loss of sexual desire
3.17
2.25
2.31
Other sexual problems
2.41
2.25
1.66
Fatigue/ drowsiness
4.06
4.22
3.08
Insomnia
3.48
3.71
2.42
Dry mouth
1.73
1.71
1.79
Blurred vision
1.47
1.79
1.84
Constipation
3.05
2.18
1.91
Dizziness
1.59
2.07
1.86
Agitation
2.95
3.43
2.66
Irritability
3.06
3.61
2.82
Anxiety
3.86
4.29
3.30
36.11
37.29
30.89
Total
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Table 1 depicts the mean scores for each group for the frequency with which they
reported experiencing each of the side effects. A series of One-Way ANOVA’s was conducted to
determine which specific side effects were different among the three groups. Two side effects
that were significantly different between those currently taking an antidepressant and those in the
other groups included loss of sexual desire and constipation, F(2, 254) > 10 and p < 0.0006 for
both side effects. Post-hoc analyses revealed that those currently taking an antidepressant
reported experiencing each of these symptoms significantly more frequently (M = 3.17 out of 5
for loss of sexual desire and 3.05 for constipation) than those that had previously taken an
antidepressant (M = 2.25 for loss of sexual desire and 2.18 for constipation), p < 0.007 for both,
and also more frequently than those who had never taken an antidepressant (M = 2.31 for loss of
sexual desire and 1.91 for constipation), p < 0.004. This result indicates that loss of sexual desire
and constipation are true side effects of antidepressant use.
Three of the side effects were significantly higher for both those who currently take an
antidepressant and those who had previously done so. These side effects included other sexual
problems, fatigue/ drowsiness, and insomnia (currently taking an antidepressant M = 2.41, 4.06,
and 3.48 respectively, and previously taken an antidepressant M = 2.25, 4.22, and 3.71
respectively, never taken an antidepressant M = 1.66, 3.08, and 2.42 respectively), all F’s (2,
254) > 9, all p’s < 0.0005. Post-hoc analyses revealed that those who were currently taking an
antidepressant and those who had previously taken one did not report experiencing the side
effects at rates that were different from one another (all p’s > 0.05), but did report experiencing
the side effects significantly more frequently than those who had never taken one, all p’s < 0.05.
This result suggests that these three side effects may actually be symptoms of depression that are
not helped by antidepressants, rather than side effects of the medication.
�10
For the side effects of anxiety, agitation, and irritability, a significant difference was
found among the groups (currently taking an antidepressant M = 3.86, 2.95, 2.82 respectively,
previously taken an antidepressant M = 4.29, 3.43, 3.61 respectively, and never taken an
antidepressant M = 3.30, 2.66, 2.82 respectively), all F’s (2, 254) > 4, all p’s < 0.01. Post-hoc
analyses revealed that the only actual differences were between those who previously took an
antidepressant and those who had never done so, all p’s < 0.008. This result could mean that
anxiety, agitation, and irritability are symptoms of depression that are slightly helped by
antidepressants, but not enough for a significant difference to be seen between those currently
taking an antidepressant and those who have in the past.
Table 2
Mean frequencies of experiencing emotional blunting (out of 5) by antidepressant usage
Emotional Blunting
Currently Past
Never
Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems
at work. (If you do not currently have a job, please skip this
question.)
1.92
2.56
1.53
Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems
at school. (If you are not currently in school, please skip this
question.)
2.6
2.7
2.02
Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems
at home.
2.73
2.64
1.79
I don't care as much about my day to day responsibilities as I
think I should.
3.27
3.21
2.25
I just don't care about things in general as much as I think I
should.
3.25
2.79
2.27
I don't react to other people's pleasant emotions (such as their
happiness and excitement) as much as I think I should.
1.9
2.44
1.93
I care less about other people's feelings than I think I should.
1.59
2.32
1.75
I don't react to other people's unpleasant emotions (such as their
sadness, anger and disappointment) as much as I think I should.
1.48
2.14
1.9
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I don't have much sympathy for people.
1.42
2.11
1.65
Other people being upset doesn't affect me.
1.64
1.71
1.7
I don't get as much of a ‘high’ from good things in my life as I
think I should.
3.59
3.32
2.41
I don't have the passion and enthusiasm for life that I should.
3.69
3.32
2.38
I don't fully enjoy things that should give me pleasure (such as
beautiful places, things, or music).
3.03
2.71
2.04
Day to day life just doesn't have the emotional impact on me that
I think it should.
3.02
2.68
2.26
Unpleasant emotions, such as sadness, anger, and
disappointment, feel toned down.
2.34
2.11
1.81
Pleasant emotions, such as happiness and excitement, feel toned
down.
2.48
2.82
2.37
My emotions lack intensity.
2.79
2.04
2.05
My emotions are numbed/ dulled/ flattened.
2.84
2.46
2.19
I don't experience pleasant emotions.
2.16
2.29
1.65
I don't experience unpleasant emotions.
1.63
1.64
1.84
I feel spaced out and distant from the world around me.
3.19
3.11
2.56
I don't look forward to things with eager anticipation.
2.61
2.82
2.08
Table 2 depicts the mean scores for each group for the emotional blunting questions. In
order to establish whether there were any actual differences between those who had previously
taken an antidepressant and those who were currently taking an antidepressant, further
comparisons were made between individual emotional blunting questions. Another series of
One-Way ANOVA’s was conducted to determine which particular emotional blunting
experiences were different among the three groups.
Two questions that showed a significant difference between the three groups were,
“Because I don’t care so much about things, I'm having problems at work,” and, “I care less
about other people’s feelings than I think I should,” both F’s (2,254) > 4.35, both p’s < 0.014.
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Post-hoc testing showed that those who had previously taken an antidepressant (M’s = 2.56 and
2.32, respectively) agreed with these statements at significantly higher rates than those who are
currently taking antidepressant (M’s = 1.92 and 1.59, respectively) and those who have never
taken an antidepressant (M’s = 1.53 and 1.75, respectively), both p’s < 0.023. This may indicate
that these are symptoms of depression that are helped by taking antidepressants.
The next group of six emotional blunting questions also showed a significant difference
among all three groups, all F’s(2, 254) > 7.36, and p’s < 0.0009. However, when post-hoc
comparisons were calculated for each of these questions, it was found that those who were
currently taking an antidepressant and those who had previously taken an antidepressant did not
report different frequencies from one another, but each of these groups rated their agreement
with the statements at higher levels than those who had never taken an antidepressant. These
statements, therefore, may reflect symptoms of depression that are not significantly improved by
taking antidepressants. These questions were, “Because I don’t care so much about things, I’m
having problems at home,” “I don’t care as much about my day to day responsibilities as I think I
should,” “I don’t get as much of a ‘high’ from good things in my life as I think I should,” “I
don’t have the passion and enthusiasm for life that I should,” “I don’t fully enjoy things that
should give me pleasure (such as beautiful places, things, or music),” and, “I don’t experience
pleasant emotions.” In each case, the difference between the means for those currently taking an
antidepressant/ those who had previously taken an antidepressant and the means for those who
had never taken an antidepressant were all greater than or equal to 0.51. See also Table 2 for the
exact means for each group for each question.
Two emotional blunting questions that were significantly different between those
currently taking an antidepressant and those in the other groups included, “I don't react to other
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people's unpleasant emotions (such as their sadness, anger and disappointment) as much as I
think I should,” and, “I don't have much sympathy for people,” F(2, 254) > 4.17 for both, p <
0.017 for both. Post-hoc analyses revealed that those who were currently taking an
antidepressant were not significantly different from those who had taken one in the past (all p’s >
0.05), but did report experiencing the side effect significantly more frequently than those who
had never taken one, all p’s < 0.05. This may mean these incidences of emotional blunting are
symptoms of depression that can be slightly helped by treatment, but do not return to normal
levels for individuals who have depression.
To assess whether or not the length of time that someone had been taking an
antidepressant affected their side effects or their experiences with emotional blunting, correlation
coefficients were calculated for the total scores of each of these and the duration of taking the
medication. Unlike the findings of previous research which suggest that side effects may
decrease with time (Crawford et al., 2014), the total side effects score in this study was not
significantly associated with duration of taking medication, r = -0.15, p = 0.24. Using the
average length of time taking an antidepressant (approximately 45 months), the sample was
divided into those who had been taking an antidepressant for less than 45 months and those who
had been taking one for longer than 45 months. An independent samples t-test compared these
two groups on their total emotional blunting scores. The mean total side effects score for those
who had been taking an antidepressant for less than 45 months (36.38) was not significantly
different from the mean total side effects score for those who had been taking an antidepressant
for longer than 45 months (34.86), t(62) = 0.72, p = 0.47.
Total emotional blunting score, however, was negatively correlated with duration, r =
-0.24, p = 0.059. This suggests that the longer a person had been taking the antidepressant, the
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less emotional blunting they had been experiencing. An independent samples t-test compared
those who had been taking antidepressants for less than 45 months to those who had been taking
one for longer than 45 months on their emotional blunting scores. The mean emotional blunting
score for those who had been taking an antidepressant for less than 45 months (55.79) was not
significantly different from the mean emotional blunting score for those who had been taking an
antidepressant for longer than 45 months (49.33), t(62) = 1.47, p = 0.15.
Discussion
This study was conducted in order to gain a better understanding of the negative effects
associated with antidepressant use. These effects manifested in physical side-effects and also in
emotional blunting. The hypotheses that the degree of side-effects and emotional blunting would
be greater in those taking an antidepressant than those not were supported by the present
research. It is very common for patients to prematurely discontinue the use of antidepressants,
but the reason why is sometimes unclear. The results of this study suggest that the side-effects
and emotional blunting caused by the antidepressants may outweigh their benefits for some
individuals who take them. The high-rate of side effects and emotional blunting caused by these
medications shows that more research into antidepressants with fewer negative consequences is
necessary. In the meantime, the negative correlation found between the intensity of emotional
blunting experienced and the length of time taking an antidepressant should be used to encourage
patients to continue on their prescribed antidepressant, with the recognition that the emotional
blunting is likely to decrease with time.
There were three potential limitations concerning the results of this study. The first
limitation of this study was that most respondents were taking the same class of antidepressant,
SSRI. The lack of diversity of medication made it unclear whether some effects were those of
�15
depression or of the antidepressant. Previous research suggests that tricyclics and other older
antidepressants may have more severe side effects than SSRIs and potentially more serious
emotional blunting. But the sample limitations did not allow for this comparison. The second
limitation to this study is the participants were not asked about depression severity in the survey.
It is possible that some of the results of this present study could be explained by lingering
depression symptoms instead of antidepressant side effects. The final limitation also concerns the
sample of the study. The sample was made up of 86% females. This means it is unknown if the
results of this study can be generalized for males taking antidepressants.
Future research should extend the current findings by examining the side effects of SSRIs
such as Zoloft versus those of aminoketone class such as Wellbutrin. Zoloft (SSRI) and
Wellbutrin are two of the most commonly used antidepressants today, but they use very different
mechanisms. SSRIs work on the neurotransmitter serotonin, but Wellbutrin works on dopamine,
so it is important to know which medication can lead to more side effects and emotional
blunting. Additionally, as previously mentioned, the participants were mostly female, so it is
necessary for research to be done to see if the results of this study would be accurate for a
representative sample of males.
Despite limitations, the present study has enhanced our understanding of the relationship
between antidepressants, side effects and emotional blunting. It has been seen in the literature
that newer medications such as SSRIs should reduce the prevalence of side-effects when
compared to older medication, but the sample demographics for this study did not make it
possible to study this interaction.
�16
References
Anderson, H.D., Pace, W.D., Libby, A.M., West, D.R., & Valuck, R.J. (2012). Rates of 5
common antidepressant side effects among new adult and adolescent cases of
depression: A retrospective US claims study. Clinical Therapeutics, 34, 113-123.
doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2011.11.024
Bet, P.M., Hugtenburg, J.G., Penninx, B.W., & Hoogendijk, W.J. (2013). Side effects of
antidepressants during long-term use in a naturalistic setting. European
Neuropsycharmacology, 23, 1443-1451.
Crawford, A.A., Lewis, S., Nutt, D., Peters, T. J., Cowen, P., O’Donovan, M. C., . . . Lewis, G.
(2014). Adverse effects from antidepressant treatment: Randomized controlled trial of
601 depressed individuals. Psychopharmacology, 231, 2921-2931.
doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3467-8
Kikuchi, T., Suzuki, T., Uchida, H., Watanabe, K., & Mimura, M. (2013). Association
between antidepressant side effects and functional impairment in patients with major
depressive disorders. Psychiatry Research, 210, 127-133.
doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.05.007
Mischoulon, D. (2009). Update and critique of natural remedies as antidepressant treatments.
Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America, 36, 789-807.
doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2009.10.005
O’Mullan, C., Doherty, M., Coates, R., & Tilley, P. M. (2014). Women’s experiences of
coping with the sexual side effects of antidepressant medication. Psychology & Health,
29, 1388-1406. doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.940951
�17
Price, J., Cole, V., Doll, H., & Goodwin, G. M. (2012). The Oxford questionnaire on the
emotional side-effects of ANTIDEPRESSANTS (OQUESA): DEVELOPMENT,
validity, reliability and sensitivity to change. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(1),
66-74. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.030
Read, J., Grigoriu, M., Gee, A., & Butler, H. (2020). The positive and negative experiences
of 342 antidepressant users. Community Mental Health Journal, 56, 744-752.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-019-00535-0
Sansone, R. A., & Sansone, L. A. (2010). SSRI-Induced Indifference. Psychiatry (Edgmont (Pa.
:Township)), 7(10), 14–18.
Santarsieri, D., & Schwartz, T. (2015). Antidepressant efficacy and side-effect burden: A quick
guide for clinicians. Drugs in Context, 4, 1-12. doi:10.7573/dic.212290
�18
Appendix
1. By clicking “I agree” below, I acknowledge that I am at least 18 years of age, have been
informed about the purpose of this study, and know whom to contact should I have any
questions. I understand that I am free to skip any questions or to stop participating at any time.
○ I agree
2. With which gender identity do you most identify?
○ Female
○ Male
3. How old are you?
4. Please click all that apply to you.
○ Employed - full time
○ Employed - part time
○ No job
○ Student - full time
○ Student - part time
5. What best describes your relationship status?
○ Married
○ Single
○ Divorced
○ Widowed
○ Cohabiting
○ Committed relationship (not living together or legally married)
6. Have you ever been diagnosed with depression?
�19
○ Yes
○ No
7. If yes, how old were you when you were diagnosed? (number answers only)
8. Which best describes your antidepressant use?
○ Currently taking an antidepressant
○ Have taken an antidepressant in the past
○ Never taken an antidepressant
9. If you are currently taking an antidepressant, what class of antidepressant are you taking?
(If you are not currently taking one, click "None")
○ MAOI (ex. Marplan, Mardil, Parnate)
○ Tricyclic (ex. amitriptyline, amoxapine, Norpramin)
○ SSRI (ex. Celexa, Lexapro, Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft)
○ SNRI (Pristiq, Cymbalta, Fetima, Effexor)
○ St. John's Wort
○ None
○ Other
10. How long have you been taking your current antidepressant? (If not taking one please
write "0")
�20
For each item # 11 through 23, please rate on a scale from 1 to 5 how frequently you have
experienced it in the last 6 months, with 1 being very infrequently and 5 being very frequently.
11. Increased appetite
1
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
12. Weight gain
1
13. Loss of sexual desire
1
14. Other sexual problems
1
15. Fatigue/ drowsiness
1
16. Insomnia
1
17. Dry Mouth
1
18. Blurred vision
1
19. Constipation
1
20. Dizziness
1
�21
21. Agitation
1
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
22. Irritability
1
23. Anxiety
1
For the statements in items #24 through 45, please rank your agreement on a scale of 1 to 5, with
1 being strongly disagree and 5 being strongly agree.
24. Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems at work. (If you do not
currently have a job, please skip this question.)
1
2
3
4
5
25. Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems at school. (If you are not
currently in school, please skip this question.)
1
2
3
4
5
26. Because I don't care so much about things, I'm having problems at home.
1
2
3
4
5
27. I don't care as much about my day to day responsibilities as I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
28. I just don't care about things in general as much as I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
29. I feel spaced out and distant from the world around me.
1
2
3
�22
30. My emotions are numbed/ dulled/ flattened.
1
2
3
4
5
31. Day to day life just doesn't have the emotional impact on me that I think it should.
1
2
3
4
5
32. Unpleasant emotions, such as sadness, anger, and disappointment, feel toned down.
1
2
3
4
5
33. Pleasant emotions, such as happiness and excitement, feel toned down.
1
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
3
4
5
34. My emotions lack intensity.
1
2
35. I don't have much sympathy for people.
1
2
36. I care less about other people's feelings than I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
37. Other people being upset doesn't affect me.
1
2
3
38. I don't react to other people's unpleasant emotions (such as their sadness, anger and
disappointment) as much as I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
39. I don't react to other people's pleasant emotions (such as their happiness and excitement)
as much as I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
�23
40. I don't fully enjoy things that should give me pleasure (such as beautiful places, things, or
music).
1
2
3
4
5
4
5
41. I don't look forward to things with eager anticipation.
1
2
3
42. I don't get as much of a ‘high’ from good things in my life as I think I should.
1
2
3
4
5
43. I don't have the passion and enthusiasm for life that I should.
1
2
3
4
5
3
4
5
3
4
5
44. I don't experience pleasant emotions.
1
2
45. I don't experience unpleasant emotions.
1
2
�
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Baccalaureate Honors Program (BHP) Capstones
Dublin Core
The Dublin Core metadata element set is common to all Omeka records, including items, files, and collections. For more information see, http://dublincore.org/documents/dces/.
Title
A name given to the resource
Examining Side Effects and Emotional Blunting of Antidepressants
Subject
The topic of the resource
Antidepressants,
Personality and emotions
Description
An account of the resource
<span style="font-weight:400;">This study examined the differences between side-effects and emotional blunting in those</span><span style="font-weight:400;"> currently taking an antidepressant versus those not taking one. It was predicted that the incidence of each side-effect would be significantly greater for those currently taking an antidepressant, and that the side-effects would decrease with time taking the medication. It was also expected that the degree of emotional blunting would be significantly greater for those currently taking an antidepressant than for the other two groups, and that emotional blunting would decrease over time. The data for this study was from a 45 question survey that was successfully completed by </span><span style="font-weight:400;">256 participants. The survey questions asked about demographic information, side-effects experienced, and the degree of emotional blunting experienced by the participants. Results revealed a significant difference in the rates of side-effects among the three groups, as well as a significant difference in emotional blunting scores among the three groups. These results suggest that those with experience taking an antidepressant either currently or previously experience significantly worse side-effects and emotional blunting than those who have never taken one. </span>
Creator
An entity primarily responsible for making the resource
Green, Rebecca
Publisher
An entity responsible for making the resource available
Rider University
Relation
A related resource
Baccalaureate Honors Program
Format
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Adobe Acrobat PDF
Language
A language of the resource
English
Type
The nature or genre of the resource
Capstone
Date
A point or period of time associated with an event in the lifecycle of the resource
2021